![]() ![]() They are typically produced outside the intentional control of the individual and cannot be directly inhibited. First, there is ample evidence that synesthetic associations are automatic in nature ( Lupiáñez and Callejas, 2006 Jarick et al., 2011). There are three such characteristic features: (1) automaticity, (2) reliability, and (3) consistency 2. Although much about synesthesia is still unknown, and novel forms and varieties of the condition may manifest themselves, it will nonetheless be useful to highlight some characteristics of synesthesia that serve to distinguish it from other perceptual phenomena, such as visual imagery and certain forms of imagistic memory. In order to assess or diagnose a psychological condition, one must, of course, know what to look for. We highlight the limitations of these strategies when it comes to both accurately assessing cases of synesthesia and examining the nature of the responses involved, and we propose potential solutions to some of these limitations along the way. While we think these techniques are particularly promising for understanding synesthesia, in this short review, we focus instead on surveying and critically evaluating popular behavioral strategies for assessing and understanding synesthesia. Some of the biggest strides are being made using neuroimaging techniques that are helping to reveal the neural basis of synesthesia. While significant steps forward have been taken in synesthesia research in the past couple of decades, there is still further to go when it comes to establishing conclusive answers to these questions using objective measures. Are they genuinely perceptual, as many claim? In other words, are synesthetic responses the outputs of sensory modalities, exhibiting features that correspond to the sensory qualities of stimuli such as color, shape, and sound? Or are they purely cognitive responses? Are they mnemonic associations? Or are they some combination thereof? But perhaps the most pressing questions pertaining to synesthetic associations concern their psychological kind. Other research has been devoted to determining the nature and characteristic features of synesthetic associations, raising questions, for example, regarding the types of stimuli that can trigger synesthetic responses ( Ramachandran et al., 2002). Some research on synesthesia is focused on determining how and why synesthetic associations are developed or acquired, and the patterns, if any, that govern them ( Watson et al., 2010, 2012 Witthoft and Winawer, 2013). Over the years, a variety of research programs have emerged to better understand this condition. Synesthesia comes in many forms, covering a wide range of sensory interactions both cross-modally and within a single modality 1. For example, a synesthete may perceive tastes when seeing certain shapes or might perceive colors when seeing achromatic letters. Synesthesia is a condition in which individuals experience atypical responses to certain types of stimuli, in addition to the typical responses elicited by those stimuli. We also provide a set of markers that aid in distinguishing synesthesia from other closely related psychological phenomena. We highlight the limitations of these methods for understanding the nature of this complex condition and propose potential solutions to address some of these limitations. In this article, we review and critically evaluate current methods for both assessing synesthesia and examining its psychological basis, including the “test-retest” procedure, online battery assessments, and behavioral experiments. Although synesthesia has been described for centuries, only very recently has there been an explosive growth of systematic scientific examinations of this condition. Synesthesia is a fairly common condition in which individuals experience atypical responses (such as color experiences) in association with certain types of stimuli (such as non-colored letters). 2Department of Psychology, The City College and Graduate Center, Program in Cognitive Neuroscience, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA.1Philosophy Program, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA.
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